Epidemiology Paper Part Two Analysis And Application Essay

Epidemiology Paper Part Two: Analysis and Application Populations â€Å"at risk† are defined as those with inequalities in access to care, quality of care and interventions to reduce disparities, and outcomes (Chin, 2005). It is important for the Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) to understand identification of â€Å"at risk† populations when moving to develop a plan to intervene and improve statistical health outcomes. This paper will identify an â€Å"at risk† population, address how the health risk for this population can be affected by nursing science, discuss potential barriers to health prevention and promotion activity implementation, and consider collaboration with stakeholders and agencies that may be of interest when developing an action plan to promote health activities. At-Risk Population One of the overarching goals of Healthy People 2020 is the elimination of health disparities. In order to fully address health disparities, the DNP must identify the at-risk population of interest and be familiar with evaluation of data to assess the prevalence and risk. It is also imperative that the DNP be able to identify particular distinctions in the health status of various groups of people and differentiate grouping of people by race, ethnicity, immigrant status, disability, sex or gender, sexual orientation, geographic location, and income status in alignment with the health disparity goals of Healthy People 2020 (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2015). Diabetes can be included inShow MoreRelatedExamples Of Position Of Officer967 Words   |  4 PagesI am pleased to submit my application for the position of Officer. It is exciting to consider a position with the global leader in consulting and technology services. In this letter, I provide some backgrou nd about my education and credentials relevant to this position. 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Research Proposal on Ethical Digital Marketing in SMEs in Australia

Question: Write a research proposal on Ethical Digital Marketing in SMEs in Australia. Answer: 1. Business research topic The chosen topic for the research study is the effect of ethics in digital marketing in the small and medium sized enterprises in Australia. The research will study the importance of digital marketing in SMEs in Australia and observe the ethical means in which these SMEs can apply the innovative technology in promoting their businesses. It has been seen that many small and medium sized enterprises has faced several ethical issues in regards to use of digital marketing in promoting their businesses (Au and Tse, 2011). Hence, it is important to understand those problems and draw proper solution to those issues by using ethical digital marketing to get the best outcome for the organizations. It can be seen that along with that giant market leaders, almost every small and medium sized companies uses the digital marketing tools such as newsletters, social media platforms, emails by using networking and internet technology (Alemany Oliver and Vayre, 2015). During the use of these digital media tools, the companies face problems regards to unethical use of data and information belonging to the customers. Furthermore, there are certain issues of false messages and spam transmitted through the use of digital marketing tools (Doiron, 2009). It is important for the small and medium organisations to understand the importance of ethics and moral safety of the customers information and the drawbacks of unethical marketing messages to survive and seek success in the world of overwhelming competition. 1.1 Aim The primary aim of the research is to evaluate and identify the importance of digital marketing and ethics on the growth of SMEs in Australia. Along with that, the paper will present the ethical problems related to digital marketing that are faced by the small and medium sized enterprises in Australia to discuss proper solution to the problems. 1.2 Objective The objectives of the research study are discussed herein below: Identify the importance of ethical digital marketing for the growth and success of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises in Australia. Evaluate the impact of ethical issues on digital marketing on the growth of SMEs in Australia Identify the use of innovative technologies in digital marketing in an ethical manner for the success of SMEs in Australia 2. Literature Review Modern business enterprises have significantly utilised digital media marketing tools such as social networking sites, blogs, online newsletters, promotional advertisements and online direct marketing strategies to promote products and services. By identifying accurate market segmentation, business organisations have applied several marketing strategies supportive of business development (Kotler and Armstrong, 2006). Currently, digital marketing tools and social media marketing have become part and parcel of promoting innovative brand items, services and products. In order to avoid any ethical conflict and promote long-term sustainability, understanding the ethical considerations and issues are mandatory for the marketers (McStay, 2010). In the case of systematic online marketing, marketers and SEOs must follow the business ethics to maintain loyalty and honesty to the target demographics. The review of literature will present some of the crucial ethical issues attached to the digita l marketing area. 2.1 Post any content without consent of the business client In digital marketing, marketers have to deal with the clients in a digital way. Some of the online websites seek some personal information of the clients such as contact number, e-mail id and name. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the digital media marketers not to post any content without any approval from the potential customers (Ashworth and Free, 2016). In some cases, it has been seen that marketers have posted content about the potential customers on their website without the consent of business clients. As a result of the same, the marketing company may have to face massive loss for breaching the business ethics (Moiseieva, 2013). Also, such incidents can tarnish the brand image of the marketing group for violating privacy policies and trust. 2.2 Disclosing private information of business clients Online marketers have been given the authority to access the sensitive and privacy policy of the clients for better online marketing activities (Won and Jo, 2014). Therefore, there are some issues regarding disclosing the confidential and private information about the clients and companies. As a result, marketers have to identify the ethical consideration so that they cannot disclose the sensitive data to another entity (Taiminen and Karjaluoto, 2015). Also, for online security, proactive firewall measurement must be done to protect the data on a server in a safe way. Thus, digital marketers should be responsible for following the ethical basis of digital content sharing. 2.3 Mistreatment of reviews of products and counterfeit merchandise endorsements As online product reviews specify the experience of a product or services from the customers point of view, it is very unethical to misuse or change the actual reviews and endorsements of the customers (Wright, ul-Haq and Oktemgil, 2006). Therefore, forwarding wrong endorsements and reviews can be termed as unethical, and the marketers are bound to use the correct reviews in the online space (De George, 2013). Meanwhile, from an ethical point of view, honest reviews and endorsements must be promoted so that the virtual customers can identify the suitability or sustainability of a product or services. 3. Research Questions It is important to develop research questions that are needed to conduct the analysis. Research questions are derived from the literature review that has been conducted to analyse the prior studies presented by different authors (Boone and Kurtz, 2016). The research questions that will be used in the study are presented herein below: What is the meaning of ethical digital marketing? What is the importance of ethical digital marketing for the success of SMEs in Australia? Why is ethics considered to be an important aspect for the success of digital marketing approach for the SMEs in Australia? What activities lead to unethical practices in digital marketing for the small and medium sized organisations in Australia? What are the impacts of unethical practices of digital marketing on the businesses of SMEs in Australia? What strategy or policy changes are required to make the digital marketing approach ethical for the success of business? 4. Research Methodology Research design is the blueprint of the paper that presents the methodology that will be used to conduct the study. In this paper, data will be collected using primary as well as secondary data collection method to enhance the database for the analysis. The primary data will be analysed using quantitative as well as qualitative analysis method that will help to present the reliability and viability of the data (Saucier, 2008). Furthermore, the findings of the survey will be presented in a thematic manner using graphs and tables to make the paper easier for the readers to understand. The entire paper will be evaluated using inductive research approach to solve the problems of unethical digital marketing for the SMEs in Australia. 5. Project Plan The primary limitation of a research study is the time constraint. It is plan the activities appropriately to complete the study in a given time period. A Gantt chart has been presented below explaining the research plan for further consideration. Gantt Chart Main Activities / Milestones Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Selection of the topic Evaluation of secondary information sources Research proposal preparation Submission of Research Proposal Groundwork of literature review Submission of Literature review Explanation of research methodology Preparing interview process Submission of Data Collection and Analysis Report Collection of primary data Analysing data Contrasting findings Drawing discussion Recommendations and Conclusions Final Business Research Thesis submission 6. Research Process The research process starts with choosing the topic for the study. It is an important aspect of the study that provides the key words for the research. The choice of topic is followed by the brief literature review and preparation of the research proposal that helps to form the research questions and prepare the research plan. After this a thorough literature review is conducted, to understand the major problems in the chosen field of study. It helps to develop a deeper understanding of the topic and prepare the hypotheses that will be used to conduct the analysis (O'Dwyer, Gilmore and Carson, 2009). Next is the research methodology that is prepared to present the research design and techniques that will be used to collect the data and conduct the analysis. After this, the primary data will be collected and converted into variables with the help of a survey and questionnaires. The collected data will be interpreted and evaluated to analyse the feedbacks of the participants. The resul ts and findings of the research will be drawn in forms of table, graphs and statistical calculation that will be explained in a descriptive manner. Furthermore, the study will present a discussion and recommendation for the betterment of the SMEs in Australia. The paper will be concluded with conclusion and suggestions for future work. 7. Data Collection and Analysis The collection of data is one of the most important tasks of a research study. Two different data collection methods will be used to conduct the research. First is the primary data collection method, in which the data is collected from the primary sources in the form of direct interviews and surveys using questionnaires. The second is the data collect using the secondary data collection method, in which the data and information will be collected from the secondary sources such as journal articles, newspaper articles, government reports, conference papers, books and internet sources. The primary data will be collected to conduct a quantitative analysis using statistical tools such as SPSS to observe mean, medium, mode and ANOVA test to check the reliability of the data (Quraishi, 2012). It helps to understand the relationship between the problems and the factors responsible for the issues. Furthermore, the primary data will help to analyse the current situation in the real business wo rld. The secondary data will be used to conduct a critical analysis of the prior literatures presented by different authors on the chosen field of study. The literature review is necessary to compare the findings of the study with other research studies to have an appropriate outcome for the research. 8. Expected Research Outcomes It can be seen through a brief study of the literature that digital marketing has emerged to be an important prospect for promoting the businesses in the Australian market. There are a huge number of SMEs that has been using the digital marketing tools such as SEOs, newsletters and social media platforms to promote their businesses. But, in many cases, it has been seen that the means used to promote the business using the digital platforms are unethical and impacts the business adversely (Ndubisi and Matanda, 2011). There are several incidents of loss of data and unethical messages that are transmitted through digital marketing activities. It leads to loss of reputation of the SMEs and impacts their business adversely (Morsing and Perrini, 2009). Hence, there is a need of proper understand of ethics and moral values while using digital marketing for promoting the products and services. Any false statement and unethical means can lead to financial losses of the organisation. It can al so lead to legal action against the organisation. Hence, the paper will present the importance of ethical digital marketing and suggest necessary strategies and policy changes that are required to seek success using technology and innovative ideas of promotion. 9. Ethics Checklist Along with the time constraints there are several other limitations that must be considered while conducting a research study. It is important to see that none of the activities in the research impacts a living being mentally or physically. Along with that, it is important to consider the rules and regulations of the institution while conducting the paper. The ethics checklist has been presented in Appendix 1 for further consideration. References Alemany Oliver, M. and Vayre, J. (2015). Big data and the future of knowledge production in marketing research: Ethics, digital traces, and abductive reasoning.J Market Anal, 3(1), pp.5-13. Ashworth, L. and Free, C. (2016). Marketing Dataveillance and Digital Privacy: Using Theories of Justice to Understand Consumers Online Privacy Concerns.J Bus Ethics, 67(2), pp.107-123. Au, A. and Tse, A. (2011). Marketing Ethics and Behavioral Predisposition of Chinese Managers of SMEs in Hong Kong.J Small Bus Man, 39(3), pp.272-278. Boone, L. and Kurtz, D. (2016).Contemporary marketing. [Mason, Ohio]: Thomson South-Western. De George, R. (2013).The ethics of information technology and business. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. Doiron, D. (2009). Internet Marketing SMEs.International Journal of E-Adoption, 1(4), pp.19-39. Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. (2006).Principles of marketing. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. McStay, A. (2010).Digital advertising. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Moiseieva, M. (2013). Mini Cooper: Marketing Strategy, Digital Marketing, Brand Ethics.CRIS - Bulletin of the Centre for Research and Interdisciplinary Study, 2013(1). Morsing, M. and Perrini, F. (2009). CSR in SMEs: do SMEs matter for the CSR.

Star Apple Sap free essay sample

This study wants to find out if it is possible to create correction fluid out of the sap of the star fruit. The researchers want to come up with a correction fluid in terms of its quality and if it is much cheaper and than the other correction fluids. Students nowadays are looking for a cheap school supplies to save for their  budget. Correction Fluids are not just for students but also for employees. And business people want a cheap things but it has a good quality. As an answer to this problem, we thought of a research that can help to the community. Not just to ourselves but we also want to share what we know. And can sell them in a cheap price but it has a good quality product.

NIcholas Coppernicus essays

NIcholas Coppernicus essays Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer, best known for the astronomical theory that the sun is stationary and Earth, spinning on its axis once daily, revolves around the sun annually. He was very intelligent and was educated at various universities. If Copernicus hadnt challenged Pltolmys theory, it would have affected us in many ways. Space travel, satellites, and weather prediction would not be as advanced. Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in Torun, Poland (Wood 87). He was born into a family of merchants. Copernicus uncle, Bishop Lukasz Watzerode, made sure his nephew obtained a solid education. In 1491 Copernicus enrolled in Jagiellonian University. From there he studied liberal arts for four years but received no degree. Like many others he went to Italy to study medicine and law (Smith 1039). Before he left, his uncle appointed him a church administrator in Fronbork. He then used the money from there to pay for school. Copernicus began to study canon lay at the University of Bologna in 1497. At that time he, was living at the home of mathematics professor, Domenico Maria de Novara. Copernicus astronomical and geographical interests were greatly inspired by Novara (Westman). Around 1500 Copernicus gave speeches on astronomy to people in Rome. Later that year he gained permission to study medicine at Padua University. Copernicus, without completing his medical studies, received a doctorate in canon law from Ferrara in 1503, after which he returned to Poland to take up his administrative duties (Smith 1039). From 1503 to 1510, Copernicus stayed in his uncles bishop palace in Lidzbark Warmiski. From there he published his first book, a Latin translation of letters on morals by a Byzantine writer. Between the times of 1507 and 1515, he completed a short astronomical book. It was not published until the 19th century (Wood 87). ...

Why Should Eveline Stay Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Why Should Eveline Stay - Essay Example Her father was an alcoholic who was so violent upon getting drunk. This poses the life of Eveline at risk at some times and forces her to look for ways of escaping to another country in order to detach herself from the persistent problems (Franz, 21). The social problems makes Eveline to take moments and ponder over the question of escaping to a far country with her friend and lover named Frank. However, another problem sets in. she is convinced that if she escapes, she would not have solved the perennial domestic problems at home. In addition, she will have given herself even more problems since coping up in an entirely new environment is a challenge. This follows that one does not exactly know what problems and challenges await in such a foreign environment. Therefore, this makes the part of decision-making become difficult with regards to Eveline’s perspective. However, she decides to stay and face the problems, as has always been the case. There are several reasons to justify the fact that Eveline should stay. First of all, Eveline herself is depicted as having many strong ties to her native home. There are several responsibilities that can emerge following the fact that Eveline was the only daughter in her family. Therefore, Eveline played key roles in ensuring that those responsibilities are carried out effectively. Thus, escaping from her home would mean that several of such responsibilities would not have been carried out. This follows that her mother was not around to take all the responsibilities. This follows that her father could not take any responsibility and making him do so would be like inviting more troubles to the whole family because of his violent nature. Therefore, Eveline had to stay in order to ensure that she takes good care of the two children. Again staying with her mother made her get motherly care and favor. This is so crucial in the development of human beings no matter

Purchasing and Buying Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Purchasing and Buying - Essay Example I had other experience though in my life that prepared me to make or buy decision. As a child, I was always interested in business and I created many ways to make small bits of money. My father was instrumental in providing me with an opportunity to understand business and as I continued to learn about business. When I entered the military, I knew I wanted to be a part of the Marine Corps right away. I became a purchasing specialist while living in Virginia and I was able to create 24 Government Purchase card holders. I had to negotiation and execute 1,300 small purchases. The way I did this was through the use of a Request of Quotation. Vendors had to submit this information and I was responsible for making the decision of which ones to purchase. I also learned how to increase revenues by putting together small contracts until we had everything we needed. As an example, I created a net income of $1.2 million for the card holders which made them very happy because I showed them how to save money. I was able to reduce costs again by creating an electronic Point of Sale system. The way that I was able to save money in this situation was to combine three positions into one. This saved 15% in the overall cost. I created a partnership with a local ending institution that gave us good rates and h elped us lower our cost by providing check verification. Since our company did not have to verify checks, I was able to create the opportunity to again save money. Because I continue to educate myself, I have created many skills that provide me with the knowledge that is needed for each of my jobs. I have received many achievements from my military training that has come in the way of various certificates. I also have a specialty in contract law and procurement which broadens my scope of skills and the world. I also have learned that there is more information than I could possibly

Dissolved Oxygen Essay Example for Free

Dissolved Oxygen Essay Oxygen in Liquids (DISSOLVED OXYGEN) Dissolved Oxygen – the amount of dissolved oxygen in a body of water as an indication of the degree of the health of water and its ability to support a balanced aquatic ecosystem. Oxygen – is a clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that dissolves in water. Small but important amounts of it are dissolved in water. OXYGEN: Aquatic Life Depends on it Plants and Animals depend on dissolved oxygen for survival. Lack of dissolved oxygen can cause aquatic animals to leave quickly they are or face death. Factors Affecting Oxygen Levels Temperature Rate of Photosynthesis Degree of Light Penetration (turbidity water depth) Degree of Water Turbulence or Wave action The amount of oxygen used by respiration and decay of organic matter Oxygen in the Balance Dissolved Oxygen levels that are at 90% and 110% saturation level or higher consistently considered healthy or good. If the Dissolved Oxygen are below 90%, there may be large amounts of oxygen demanding materials. What Is Dissolved Oxygen In Water? Dissolved oxygen in water is vital for underwater life. It is what aquatic creatures need to breathe. Why Is Dissolved Oxygen Important? Just as we need air to breathe, aquatic organisms need dissolved oxygen to respire. It is necessary for the survival of fish, invertebrates, bacteria, and underwater plants. How Is Dissolved Oxygen Measured? Dissolved oxygen concentration can be reported as milligrams per liter, parts per million, or as percent air saturation. Polarographic Cell It is very similar to the galvanic cell. However, the polarographic cell has two noble-metal electrodes and requires a polarizing voltage to reduce the oxygen. The dissolved oxygen in the sample diffuses through the membrane into the electrolyte, which usually is an aqueous KC1 solution. If there is a constant polarizing voltage (usually 0.8 V) across the electrodes, the oxygen is reduced at the cathode, and the resulting current How is proportional to the oxygen content of the electrolyte. This current flow is detected as an indication of oxygen content. Galvanic Cell All galvanic cells consist of an electrolyte and two electrodes (Figure 8.43c). The oxygen content of the electrolyte is equalized with that of the sample. The reaction is spontaneous; no external voltage is applied. In this reaction, the cathode reduces the oxygen into hydroxide, thus releasing four electrons for each molecule of oxygen. These electrons cause a current flow through the electrolyte.. The magnitude of the current flow is in proportion to the oxygen concentration in the electrolyte. Flow through Cells In the flow-through cells, the process sample stream is bubbled through the electrolyte. The oxygen concentration of the electrolyte is therefore in equilibrium with the samples oxygen content, and the resulting ion current between the electrodes is representative of this concentration. These types of cells are usually provided with sampling consisting of (but not limited to) filtering and scrubbing components and flow, pressure, and temperature regulators. Thallium Cell Thallium cells are somewhat unique in their operating principle and cannot be classified into the category of either galvanic or polarographic cells. At the same time, they are of the electrochemical type. One thallium-electrode cell design is somewhat similar in appearance to the unit illustrated on Figure 8.43c except that it has no membrane or electrolyte. This cell has a thallium outer-ring electrode and an inner reference electrode. When oxygen contacts the thallium, the potential developed by the cell is a function of  the thallous ion concentration at the face of the electrode, and the ion concentration is in proportion to the concentration of dissolved oxygen. Fluorescence-based Sensor In this case, a compound containing ruthenium is immobilized in a gas-permeable matrix called a sol-gel. Sol-gels are very low-density, silica-based matrices suitable for immobilizing chemical compounds such as the ruthenium compound used in this measurement technique. Effectively, the sol-gel is equivalent to the membrane in a conventional DO sensor. Using fiber optics, light from a light-emitting diode is transferred to the backside of the sol-gel coating. The emitted fluorescence is collected from the backside of the sol-gel with another optical fiber and its intensity is detected by photodiode. A simplified sensor design is shown in Figure 8.43g. If no oxygen is present, the intensity of the emitted light will be at its maximum value. If oxygen is present, the fluorescence will be quenched, and the emitted intensity will decrease. Twinkler Titration The Winkler Method is a technique used to measure dissolved oxygen in freshwater systems. Dissolved oxygen is used as an indicator of the health of a water body, where higher dissolved oxygen concentrations are correlated with high productivity and little pollution. Temperature Effects Pressure Effects Salinity Effects Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen used by microorganisms to decompose this waste. If there is a large quantity of organic waste in the water supply, there will also be a lot of bacteria present working to decompose this waste. In this case, the demand for oxygen will be high (due to all the bacteria) so the BOD level will be high. As the waste is consumed or dispersed through the water, BOD levels will begin to decline. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure for the quantity of oxygen required for the biodegradation of organic matter (carbonaceous demand) in water.It can also indicate the amount of oxygen used to oxidise reduced forms of nitrogen (nitrogenous demand), unless their oxidation is prevented by an inhibitor. A test is used to measure the amount of oxygen consumed by these organisms during a specified period of time (usually 5 days at 20 ÌŠÌŠÌŠÌŠC). Classification: BOD is devided in two parts which is Carbonaceous Oxygen Demand and the Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand. Carbonaceous Oxygen Demand it is the amount of oxygen consumed by the microorganisms during decomposing carbohydrate material. Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand it is the amount of oxygen consumed by the microorganisms during decomposing nitrogenous materials. Relationship of DO and BOD If the Dissolve Oxygen (DO) of a water is high, the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)is low. If the BOD of the water is hight, the DO is low.Therefore DO and BOD is inversely Proportional to each other. Why we should need to know BOD? BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in rivers and streams. The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the stream. This means less oxygen is available to higher forms of aquatic life. The consequences of high BOD are the same as those for low dissolved oxygen: aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die. Knowledge of oxygen utilization of a polluted water supply is important because: 1. It is the measure of the pollution load, relative to oxygen utilization by other life in the water; 2. It is the means for predicting progress of aerobic decomposition and the amount of self-purification taking place; 3. It is the measure of the oxygen demand load removal efficiency by different treatment process. Factors that contributes to variations in BOD The Seed Is the bacterial culture that affects the oxidation of materials in the sample. If the biological seed is not acclimated to the particular wastewater, erroneous results are frequently obtained. pH The BOD results are also greatly affected by the pH of the sample, especially if it is lower than 6.5 or higher than 8.3. In order to achieve uniform conditions, the sample should be buffered to a pH of about 7. Temperature Standard test condition calls for a temperature of 20 ÌŠC (68 ÌŠF). field tests often require operation at other temperatures and, consequently, the results tend to vary unless temperature corrections are applied. Toxicity The presence of toxic materials may result increase in the BOD value as a specific sample is dilluted for the BOD test.Consistent value may be obtained either by removing the toxic materials from the sample or By developing a seed that is compatible with the toxic material in the sample. Incubation Time The usual standard lab test incubation time is 5 days, results may occur at a flat part or occur at a steeply rising portion.Depending on the type of seed and the type of oxidable material, divergent result can be expected. Nitrification In the usual course BOD test, the oxygen consumption rises steeply at the beginning of the test owing to attack on carbohydrate materials. Another sharp increase in oxygen utilization occurs sometime during 10th to 15th day in those samples containing nitrogenous materials. How we determine or measure BOD? Five-Day BOD Procedure The BOD test takes 5 days to complete and is performed using a dissolved oxygen test kit. The BOD level is determined by comparing the DO level of a water sample taken immediately with the DO level of a water sample that has been incubated in a dark location for 5 days. The difference between the two DO levels represents the amount of oxygen required for the decomposition of any organic material in the sample and is a good approximation of the BOD level. Test procedures: 1. Take 2 samples of water 2. Record the DO level (ppm) of one immediately using the method described in the dissolved oxygen test. 3. Place the second water sample in an incubator in complete darkness at 20oC for 5days. If you dont have an incubator, wrap the water sample bottle in aluminum foil or black electrical tape and store in a dark place at room temperature (20 ÌŠC or 68  °F). 4. After 5 days, take another dissolved oxygen reading (ppm) using the dissolved oxygen test kit. 5. Subtract the Day 5 reading from the Day 1 reading to determine the BOD level. Record your final BOD result in ppm. Note: Generally, when BOD levels are high, there is a decline in DO levels. This is because the demand for oxygen by the bacteria is high and they are taking that oxygen from the oxygen dissolved in the water. If there is no organic waste present in the water, there wont be as many bacteria present to decompose it and thus the BOD will tend to be lower and the DO level will tend to be higher. At high BOD levels, organisms such as macro  invertebrates that are more tolerant of lower dissolved oxygen may appear and become numerous. Organisms that need higher oxygen levels) will NOT survive. Extended BOD Test Continuation of BOD test beyond 5 days shows a continuing oxygen demand, with a sharp increase in BOD rate at the 10th day owing to nitrification. The latter process involves biological attack on nitrogenous organic material accompanied by an increase in BOD rate. The oxygen demand continues at a uniform rate for an extended time. Manometric BOD Test In the manometric procedure, the seeded sample is confined in a closed system that includes an appreciable amount of air . As the oxygen in the water is depleted, it is replenish by the gas phase. A potassium hydroxide (KOH) absorber within the system removes any gaseous carbon dioxide generated by bacterial action. The oxygen removed from the air phase results in a drop in pressure that is that is removed with a manometer. This fall is then related to the BOD of the sample. Electrolysis System for BOD The measuring principle for all electrolytic respirometers is quite similar. As micro-organisms respire they use oxygen converting the organic carbon in the solution to CO2 gas, which is absorbed to alkali. This causes a reduction in the gas pressure, which can be sensed with various sensors or membranes. A small current is created in electrolysis cell and this generates oxidation/reduction reactions in the electrolysis cell and oxygen is formed at the anode. Electrolysis of water can supply oxygen to a closed system as incubation proceeds . At constant current, the time during which electrolysis generates the oxygen to keep the system pressure constant is a direct measure of the oxygen demand. The amount of oxygen produced by the electrolysis correlates with the amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Is the standard method for indirect measurements of the amount of pollution in a sample of water that cannot be oxidized biologically. Is based on the chemical decomposition of organic and inorganic contaminants, dissolved or suspended in water. Why Measure Chemical Oxygen Demand? It is often measured as a rapid indicator for organic pollutant in water. Normally measured in both municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants and gives an indication of the efficiency of the treatment process. It is measured on both influent and effluent water. Standard Dichromate COD Procedure A sample is heated to its boiling point with known amounts of sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate. The loss of water is minimized by the reflux condenser. After 2 h, the solution is cooled, and the amount of dichromate that reacted with oxidizable material in the water sample is determined by titrating the excess potassium dichromate with ferrous sulfate. Dichromate consumed is calculated as to oxygen equivalent for the sample and stated as milligrams of oxygen per liter of sample (ml/l). Factors preventing the concordance of BOD values to COD values: Many organic materials are oxidizable by dichromate but not biochemically oxidizable, and vice versa. For example, pyridine, benzene, and ammonia are not attacked by the dichromate procedure. A number of inorganic substances such as sulfide, sulfites, thiosulfates, nitrites, and ferrous iron are oxidized by dichromate, creating an inorganic COD that is misleading when estimating the organic content of wastewater. Although the factor of seed acclimation will give erroneously low results on the BOD tests, COD results are not dependent on acclimation. Chlorides interfere with the COD analysis, and their effect must be minimized in order to obtain consistent results. The standard procedure provides for only a limited amount of chlorides in the sample. This is usually accomplished by diluting the sample to achieve a lower chloride concentration and interference. This can be a problem for low COD  concentration samples, as the dilution may dilute the COD concentration below the detection level or to levels at which accuracy and repeatability are poor. COD Detector The term COD usually refers to the laboratory dichromate oxidation procedure, although it has also been applied to other procedures that differ greatly from the dichromate method but which do involve chemical reaction. These methods have been embodied in instruments both for manual operation in the laboratory and for automatic operation online. They have the distinct advantage of reducing analysis time from days (5-day BOD) and hours (dichromate, respirometer) to minutes. Automatic On-Line Designs Takes a 5 cc sample from the flowing process stream. Injects it into the reflux chamber after mixing it together with dilution water (if any) agents. One ozone-based scheme enriches dilution water with and with two reagents: dichromate solution and sulfuric acid. The reagents also contain an oxidation catalyst (silver sulfate) and a chemical that complexes chlorides in the solution (mercuric sulfate). The mixture is boiled at 302 °F (150 °C) by the heater. Vapors are condensed by the cooling water in the reflux condenser. During which the dichromate ions are reduced to trivalent chromic ions, as the oxygen demanding organics are oxidized in the sample. The chromic ions give the solution a green color. The COD concentration is measured by detecting the amount of dichromate converted to chromic ions by measuring the intensity of the green color through a fiber-optic detector. The microprocessor-controlled package is available with automatic zeroing, calibration, and flushing features. Sampling and Traditional Parameter Parameter Limit Value Sampling: pH, Standard Units 6.0 9.0 Traditional Parameters: Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) ≠¤ 30 ppm Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) ≠¤ 200 ppm COD has a large value than BOD because BOD measurement is based only in decomposition of organic matter while COD measures the decomposition of both organic and Inorganic compound. Sources of Error Cause of using nonhomogeneous sample is the largest error. Use of volumetric flasks and volumetric pipettes with a large bore. Oxidizing agent must be precisely measured. Make sure that the vials are clean and free of air bubbles. Always read the bottom of the meniscus at eye level. Total Oxygen Demand (TOD) The quantitative measurement of the amount of oxygen used to burn the impurities in a liquid sample. Thus, it is a direct measure of the oxygen demand of the sample. Measurement is by continuous analysis of the concentration of oxygen in a combustion process gas effluent. A quantitative measurement of all oxidizable material in a sample water or wastewater as determined instrumentally by measuring the depletion of oxygen after high-temperature combustion. BOD and COD have long time cycles. COD use corrosive reagents with the inherent problem of disposal. Analysis is faster, approximately 3 min, and uses no liquid reagents in its analysis. Can be correlated to both COD and BOD. Unaffected by the presence of inorganic carbon. Also indicate noncarbonaceous materials that consume or contribute oxygen Since the actual measurement is oxygen consumption. Reflects the oxidation state of the chemical compound. TOD Analyzer The oxidizable components in a liquid sample introduce into the combustion tube are converted to their stable oxides by a reaction that disturbs the oxygen equilibrium in the carrier gas steam. The momentary depletion in the oxygen concentration in the carrier gas is detected by an oxygen detector and recorded as a negative oxygen peak. Sample Valves Sliding Plate Upon a signal from a cycle timer, the air actuator temporarily moves the valve to its â€Å"sample fill† position. At the same time, an air-operated actuator moves a 20-ul sample through the valve into the combustion tube. A stream of oxygen-enriched nitrogen carrier gas moves the slug of sample into the combustion tube. Rotary Sampling Valve A motor continuously rotates a sampling head, which contains a built-in sampling syringe. For part of the time, the tip of the syringe is over a trough that contains the flowing sample. 2 or more cam ramps along the rotational path cause the syringe plunger to rise and fall, thus rinsing the sample chamber. Just before the syringe reaches the combustion tube, it picks up a 20-ul sample. As it rotates over the combustion tube, it discharges the sample. Oxygen Detectors Platinum-lead Fuel Cell Fuel Cell Generates a current in proportion to the oxygen content of the carrier gas passing through it. Before entering the cell, the gas is scrubbed in a potassium hydroxide solution, both to remove acid gases and other harmful combustion products to humidify the gas. The oxygen cell and the scrubber are located in a temperature-controlled compartment. The fuel cell output is monitored and zeroed to provide a constant baseline. The output peaks are linearly proportionate to the reduced concentration of oxygen in the carrier gas as a result of the sample’s TOD. Yttrium-doped Zirconium Oxide Ceramic Tube Coated on both sides with a porous layer of platinum. It is maintained at an elevated temperature and also provides an output that represents the reduction in oxygen concentration in the carrier gas that is a result of the sample’s TOD. The operation of these oxygen detectors involves the ionization of oxygen in both a sample and a known reference gas stream. When the sample and reference gas streams come in contact with the electrode surfaces, oxygen ionizes into O-2 ions. The oxygen ion concentrations in each stream is a function of the partial pressure of oxygen in the stream. The potential at each electrode will depend on the partial pressure of oxygen in the gas stream. The electrode with higher potential (higher oxygen concentration) will generate oxygen ions, whereas the electrode with lower potential (lower oxygen concentration) will convert oxygen ions to oxygen molecules. Calibration Analysis is by comparison of peak heights or areas to a standard calibration curve. To prepare this curve, known TOD concentrations of a primary standard (KHP) are prepared in distilled and deionized water. Standard solutions are stable for several weeks at room temperature. Water solutions of other organic compounds can also be used as standards. Several analyses can be made at each calibration concentration, and the resulting data are recorded as parts per million (ppm) TOD vs. peak height or area. Applications: Correlation: Many regulatory agencies recognize as the basis for oxygen-depleting pollution control only BOD or COD (preferably BOD) measurements of pollution load, because they are concerned with the pollution load on receiving waters, which is related to lowering the DO due to bacterial activity. If other methods described are to be used to satisfy legal requirements of pollution load in effluents or to measure BOD removal, it is important to establish a correlation between the other methods and BOD or COD (preferably BOD). Salient Features: a measurement of property of the sample, i.e. the amount of oxygen required for bacterial oxidation of bacterial food in the water, the BOD dependence of the oxygen demand on the nature of the food as well as on its quantity dependence of the oxygen demand on the nature and amount of the bacteria Another extensive study concluded the following: (1) A reliable statistical correlation between BOD and COD of a wastewater and its corresponding TOD can frequently be achieved, particularly when the organic strength is high and the diversity in dissolved organic constituents is low. (2) The relationship is best described by a least squares regression with the degree of fit expressed by the correlation coefficient (3) The observed correspondence of COD-TOD was better than that of COD-BOD for the wastewaters. (4) The BOD-COD ratio of an untreated wastewater is indicative of the biological treatment possible with the particular wastewater. Comparison: COMPARISON BOD COD TOD Definition The oxygen required when a population of bacteria causes the oxidation reaction in a population of bacteria. The oxygen equivalent when the oxidation is carried out with a chemical oxidizing reagent such as potassium dichromate. The oxygen equivalent when oxidation is caused by heating the sample in a furnace in the presence of a catalyst and oxygen. Analyzer Utilize bacteria to oxidize the pollutants Measured through chemical oxidation and catalytic combustion techniques Oxidize the sample in a catalyzed thermal combustion process and detect both the organic and inorganic impurities in a sample Response-Range 5 days 30 mg/L 2 hours 250-500 ppm 3 minutes 100-100,000 mg/L Inaccuracy-Cost 3 – 20% / $500 $20,000 2 – 10% / $8,00 $20,000 2 – 5% / $5,000 $20,000